Problem Solving

CONTENTS
Problem Solving and Decision Making

Supervision: Overview Supervisors constantly make decisions that affect the work of others. Day-to-day situations involving supervisory decisions include employee morale, the allocation of effort, the materials used on the job, and the coordination of schedules and work areas. The supervisor must recognize problems, make a decision, initiate an action, and evaluate the results. In order to make decisions that are consistent with the overall goals of the organization, supervisors use guidelines set by top management. Thus, it is difficult for supervisors to make good decisions without good planning.
An objective becomes a criterion by which decisions are made. A decision is a solution chosen from among alternatives. Decisions must be made when the supervisor is faced with a problem. Decision-making is the process of selecting an alternative course of action that will solve a problem. The first decision is whether or not to take corrective action. A simple solution might be to change the objective. Yet, the job of the supervisor is to achieve objectives. Thus, supervisors will attempt to solve most problems.

A problem exists whenever there is a difference between what actually happens and what the supervisor wants to have happen. Some of the problems faced by the supervisor may occur frequently. The solutions to these problems may be systematized by establishing policies that will provide a ready solution to them. In these repetitive situations, the problem solving process is used once and then the solution (decision) can be used again in similar situations.

Exceptions to established routines or policies become the more difficult decisions that supervisors must make. When no previous policy exists, the supervisor must invent a solution. Problem solving is the process of taking corrective action in order to meet objectives. Some of the more effective decisions involve creativity. To get better ideas, the supervisor follows the steps in the problem solving process. The steps are built on a logical analysis.

The supervisor can think through all aspects of the problem by answering the following questions. What seems to be the trouble? Why is it causing the trouble? What are the causal factors? What can be done in all possibilities? Are all these possibilities workable? What are the probabilities of success for each of the solutions? What are the appropriate alternatives? What is the correct choice? Have I logically eliminated the other choices? When and how can the solution be implemented? What is the best way to implement the solution? Has the solution solved the original problem? Have I planned, organized, and provided for the control of actions leading to solutions?

The steps in the problem solving process are (1) define the problem, (2) identify decision criteria, (3) develop alternatives, (4) decide, (5) implement the decision, and (6) evaluate the decision.

Step 1: Define the problem. The problem solving/decision-making process begins when the supervisor recognizes the problem, experiences pressure to act on it, and has the resources to do something about it. This means that the supervisor must correctly define the problem. Problem identification is not easy. The problem statement can be too broad or too narrow. Supervisors are easily swayed by a solution orientation that allows them to gloss over this first and most important step. Or, what is perceived, as the cause of a problem may actually be a symptom.

The supervisor must solve the right problem. In order to define the problem, the supervisor must describe the factors that are causing the problem. These are the symptoms, visible as circumstances or conditions that indicate the existence of the problem -- the difference between what is desired and what exists. By not clearly defining the problem, ineffective action will be taken.

Step 2: Identify decision criteria. The supervisor determines what is relevant in making a decision by isolating the facts pertinent to the problem. Since there is no single best criterion for decision making where a perfect knowledge of all the facts is present, a set of criteria must be used for the problem at hand. These decision criteria identify what will guide the decision-making process. They are the important facts relevant to the problem as defined. It is important that decision criteria be established early in the problem solving process because if the criteria are developed as analysis of data is taking place, the chances are good that the data will determine the criteria. Thus, setting the criteria early introduces objectivity. These facts can be tangible as well as intangible. Tangible facts might include the work assignments, the work schedules, or work orders. Intangible facts could include morale, motivation, and personal feelings and perceptions.

This process is somewhat subjective, because what serves as important criteria for one supervisor may be less important for another. For instance, the decision-making criteria used to hire employees differs across departments; the sales department uses the number of new store openings in different geographic areas, while the manufacturing department uses how many units of the product needs to be produced and how quickly.

Key uncertainties, the variables that result from simple chance, must be identified. Regardless of the solution chosen, key uncertainties are important because they can be plusses or minuses. What are the chance variables? Which way would these variables fall, relative to each of the workable solutions?

Not all criteria have the same importance. (Criteria weights can vary among different supervisors as well.) Assigning weights indicates the importance a supervisor places on each criterion for resolving the problem and helps establish priorities. Criteria that are extremely important can be given more weight, while those that are least important can be given less weight.

Step 3: Develop alternatives. The supervisor must identify all workable alternative solutions for resolving the problem. The term workable prevents alternative solutions that are too expensive, too time-consuming, or too elaborate. The best approach in determining workable solutions is to state all possible alternatives, without evaluating any of the options. This helps to ensure that a thorough list of possibilities is created.

Generating alternative solutions requires divergent thinking (deviating from traditional.) Groups can be used to generate alternative solutions. Brainstorming is the process of suggesting as many alternatives as possible without evaluation. The group is presented with a problem and asked to develop as many solutions as possible. When brainstorming, employees should be encouraged to make wild, extreme suggestions. They build on suggestions made by others. None of the alternatives are evaluated until all possibilities are exhausted.

The supervisor must judge what would happen with each alternative and its effect on the problem. The strengths and weaknesses of each alternative are critically analyzed by comparing the weights assigned and then eliminating the alternatives that are not workable. Probability factors -- such as risk, uncertainty, and ignorance - must be considered. Risk is a state of imperfect knowledge in which the decision-maker judges the different possible outcomes of each alternative and can determine the probabilities of success for each. Uncertainty is a state in which the decision-maker judges the different possible outcomes of each alternative but lacks any feeling for their probabilities of success. Ignorance is a state in which the decision-maker cannot judge the different possible outcomes of each alternative, let alone their probabilities. Investigating all the possible alternatives helps to prevent eliminating the most appropriate one, because a decision is only as good as the best alternative evaluated.

Step 4: Decide. The supervisor must make a choice among the alternatives. The alternative that rates the highest score should be the preferred solution. The decision can be assisted by the supervisor's experience, past judgment, advice from others, or even a hunch.

Timing impacts the decision. The probable outcome and its advantages versus its disadvantages are affected at any given time. Which alternative is most appropriate at a given time?

Decisions are made by consensus when solutions are acceptable to everyone in the group, not just a majority. Everyone is included, and the decision is a win-win situation. Consensus does not include voting, averaging, compromising, negotiating, or trading (win-lose situations). Every member accepts the solution, even though some members may not be convinced that it is the best solution. The "right" decision is the best collective judgment of the group as a whole.

Consensus gives every person a chance to be heard and have their input weighed equally. All members accept responsibility for both listening and contributing. Disagreements are viewed as helpful rather than hindrances in reaching consensus. Each member monitors the decision-making process and initiates discussions about the process if it becomes ineffective. The smallest minority has a chance to change the collective mind if their input is keener.

Group members do not give in just to reach an agreement. They support only those solutions that they can truthfully accept. If people exercise this power to go against the majority, they must have listened to the collective wisdom in good conscience. A block should not be used to place an individual's will above the group's.

Consensus works in an environment of trust, where everyone suffers or gains alike from the decision. Everyone must listen, participate, get informed, be rational, and be part of the process from the beginning. Thus, consensus can be time consuming long and exhausting to the participants. Yet, consensus will result in synergism. Synergy is the combined action of the group, greater in total effect than the sum of their effects. The combined problem solving/decision making abilities of the group members produce a better decision than that of the individual member.

Taking action requires self-confidence or courage. Only a person who is willing to take risks is able to assume responsibility for a decision involving action. The fact remains that the supervisor is held accountable for the outcome of the decision. Thus, he or she must be confident that the right problem has been defined and the most workable solution has been chosen. Self-confidence is the best element for a supervisor to possess at this stage.

Step 5: Implement the decision. Once the solution is chosen, the decision is shared with those whose work will be affected. Ultimately, human beings will determine whether or not a decision is effectively implemented. If this fact is neglected, the solution will fail. Thus, implementation is a crucial part of the decision-making process. Including employees who are directly involved in the implementation of a decision, or who are indirectly affected by that decision, will help foster their commitment. Without their commitment, gaining support and achieving outcomes becomes increasingly difficult. With this commitment, the supervisor has a reasonable degree of assurance that the decision will be accepted and have the necessary support.

In order to implement the decision, the supervisor must have a plan for communicating it to those directly and indirectly affected. Employees must understand how the decision will affect them. Communication is most effective when it precedes action and events. In this way, events conform to plans and events happen when, and in the way, they should happen. Thus, the supervisor should answer the vital questions before they are asked. Communicating answers to these questions can overcome much of the resistance that otherwise might be encountered.

Step 6: Evaluate the decision. The supervisor must follow up and appraise the outcomes from the decision to determine if desired results were achieved. If not, then the process needs to be reviewed from the beginning to determine where errors may have been made. Evaluation can take many forms, depending on the type of decision, the environment, working conditions, needs of managers and employees, and technical problems. Generally, feedback and reports are necessary to learn of the decision's outcome. Sometimes, corrections can be introduced for different steps. Other times, the entire decision-making process needs to start over.

The main function of the follow up is to determine whether or not the problem has been resolved. Usually follow up requires a supervisory visit to the work area affected by the decision. The supervisor may have to repeat the entire decision process if a new problem has been generated by the solution. It is better to discover this failure during the follow up period rather than remain unaware of a new problem provoked by the implemented solution.

Goals

Discussion

Review

Today's Manager

Managerial Functions

Management Levels

Managerial Roles

Management Skills

Management History

Business Environment

Supervision: Planning

Planning Process

Operating Guidelines

Objective Setting

Action Plans

Problem Solving

Supervision: Organizing

Organizing Process

Power and Authority

Delegating

Communicating

Managing Time

Supervision: Directing

Teambuilding

Consensus-Building

Selecting

Training

Leading

Motivating

Supervision: Controlling

Controlling Process

Coaching

Counseling

Disciplining

Evaluating

Terminating

CONTENTS	Problem Solving and Decision Making
Supervision: Overview	Supervisors constantly make decisions that affect the work of others. Day-to-day situations involving supervisory decisions include employee morale, the allocation of effort, the materials used on the job, and the coordination of schedules and work areas. The supervisor must recognize problems, make a decision, initiate an action, and evaluate the results. In order to make decisions that are consistent with the overall goals of the organization, supervisors use guidelines set by top management. Thus, it is difficult for supervisors to make good decisions without good planning. An objective becomes a criterion by which decisions are made. A decision is a solution chosen from among alternatives. Decisions must be made when the supervisor is faced with a problem. Decision-making is the process of selecting an alternative course of action that will solve a problem. The first decision is whether or not to take corrective action. A simple solution might be to change the objective. Yet, the job of the supervisor is to achieve objectives. Thus, supervisors will attempt to solve most problems. A problem exists whenever there is a difference between what actually happens and what the supervisor wants to have happen. Some of the problems faced by the supervisor may occur frequently. The solutions to these problems may be systematized by establishing policies that will provide a ready solution to them. In these repetitive situations, the problem solving process is used once and then the solution (decision) can be used again in similar situations. Exceptions to established routines or policies become the more difficult decisions that supervisors must make. When no previous policy exists, the supervisor must invent a solution. Problem solving is the process of taking corrective action in order to meet objectives. Some of the more effective decisions involve creativity. To get better ideas, the supervisor follows the steps in the problem solving process. The steps are built on a logical analysis. The supervisor can think through all aspects of the problem by answering the following questions. What seems to be the trouble? Why is it causing the trouble? What are the causal factors? What can be done in all possibilities? Are all these possibilities workable? What are the probabilities of success for each of the solutions? What are the appropriate alternatives? What is the correct choice? Have I logically eliminated the other choices? When and how can the solution be implemented? What is the best way to implement the solution? Has the solution solved the original problem? Have I planned, organized, and provided for the control of actions leading to solutions? The steps in the problem solving process are (1) define the problem, (2) identify decision criteria, (3) develop alternatives, (4) decide, (5) implement the decision, and (6) evaluate the decision. Step 1: Define the problem. The problem solving/decision-making process begins when the supervisor recognizes the problem, experiences pressure to act on it, and has the resources to do something about it. This means that the supervisor must correctly define the problem. Problem identification is not easy. The problem statement can be too broad or too narrow. Supervisors are easily swayed by a solution orientation that allows them to gloss over this first and most important step. Or, what is perceived, as the cause of a problem may actually be a symptom. The supervisor must solve the right problem. In order to define the problem, the supervisor must describe the factors that are causing the problem. These are the symptoms, visible as circumstances or conditions that indicate the existence of the problem -- the difference between what is desired and what exists. By not clearly defining the problem, ineffective action will be taken. Step 2: Identify decision criteria. The supervisor determines what is relevant in making a decision by isolating the facts pertinent to the problem. Since there is no single best criterion for decision making where a perfect knowledge of all the facts is present, a set of criteria must be used for the problem at hand. These decision criteria identify what will guide the decision-making process. They are the important facts relevant to the problem as defined. It is important that decision criteria be established early in the problem solving process because if the criteria are developed as analysis of data is taking place, the chances are good that the data will determine the criteria. Thus, setting the criteria early introduces objectivity. These facts can be tangible as well as intangible. Tangible facts might include the work assignments, the work schedules, or work orders. Intangible facts could include morale, motivation, and personal feelings and perceptions. This process is somewhat subjective, because what serves as important criteria for one supervisor may be less important for another. For instance, the decision-making criteria used to hire employees differs across departments; the sales department uses the number of new store openings in different geographic areas, while the manufacturing department uses how many units of the product needs to be produced and how quickly. Key uncertainties, the variables that result from simple chance, must be identified. Regardless of the solution chosen, key uncertainties are important because they can be plusses or minuses. What are the chance variables? Which way would these variables fall, relative to each of the workable solutions? Not all criteria have the same importance. (Criteria weights can vary among different supervisors as well.) Assigning weights indicates the importance a supervisor places on each criterion for resolving the problem and helps establish priorities. Criteria that are extremely important can be given more weight, while those that are least important can be given less weight. Step 3: Develop alternatives. The supervisor must identify all workable alternative solutions for resolving the problem. The term workable prevents alternative solutions that are too expensive, too time-consuming, or too elaborate. The best approach in determining workable solutions is to state all possible alternatives, without evaluating any of the options. This helps to ensure that a thorough list of possibilities is created. Generating alternative solutions requires divergent thinking (deviating from traditional.) Groups can be used to generate alternative solutions. Brainstorming is the process of suggesting as many alternatives as possible without evaluation. The group is presented with a problem and asked to develop as many solutions as possible. When brainstorming, employees should be encouraged to make wild, extreme suggestions. They build on suggestions made by others. None of the alternatives are evaluated until all possibilities are exhausted. The supervisor must judge what would happen with each alternative and its effect on the problem. The strengths and weaknesses of each alternative are critically analyzed by comparing the weights assigned and then eliminating the alternatives that are not workable. Probability factors -- such as risk, uncertainty, and ignorance - must be considered. Risk is a state of imperfect knowledge in which the decision-maker judges the different possible outcomes of each alternative and can determine the probabilities of success for each. Uncertainty is a state in which the decision-maker judges the different possible outcomes of each alternative but lacks any feeling for their probabilities of success. Ignorance is a state in which the decision-maker cannot judge the different possible outcomes of each alternative, let alone their probabilities. Investigating all the possible alternatives helps to prevent eliminating the most appropriate one, because a decision is only as good as the best alternative evaluated. Step 4: Decide. The supervisor must make a choice among the alternatives. The alternative that rates the highest score should be the preferred solution. The decision can be assisted by the supervisor's experience, past judgment, advice from others, or even a hunch. Timing impacts the decision. The probable outcome and its advantages versus its disadvantages are affected at any given time. Which alternative is most appropriate at a given time? Decisions are made by consensus when solutions are acceptable to everyone in the group, not just a majority. Everyone is included, and the decision is a win-win situation. Consensus does not include voting, averaging, compromising, negotiating, or trading (win-lose situations). Every member accepts the solution, even though some members may not be convinced that it is the best solution. The "right" decision is the best collective judgment of the group as a whole. Consensus gives every person a chance to be heard and have their input weighed equally. All members accept responsibility for both listening and contributing. Disagreements are viewed as helpful rather than hindrances in reaching consensus. Each member monitors the decision-making process and initiates discussions about the process if it becomes ineffective. The smallest minority has a chance to change the collective mind if their input is keener. Group members do not give in just to reach an agreement. They support only those solutions that they can truthfully accept. If people exercise this power to go against the majority, they must have listened to the collective wisdom in good conscience. A block should not be used to place an individual's will above the group's. Consensus works in an environment of trust, where everyone suffers or gains alike from the decision. Everyone must listen, participate, get informed, be rational, and be part of the process from the beginning. Thus, consensus can be time consuming long and exhausting to the participants. Yet, consensus will result in synergism. Synergy is the combined action of the group, greater in total effect than the sum of their effects. The combined problem solving/decision making abilities of the group members produce a better decision than that of the individual member. Taking action requires self-confidence or courage. Only a person who is willing to take risks is able to assume responsibility for a decision involving action. The fact remains that the supervisor is held accountable for the outcome of the decision. Thus, he or she must be confident that the right problem has been defined and the most workable solution has been chosen. Self-confidence is the best element for a supervisor to possess at this stage. Step 5: Implement the decision. Once the solution is chosen, the decision is shared with those whose work will be affected. Ultimately, human beings will determine whether or not a decision is effectively implemented. If this fact is neglected, the solution will fail. Thus, implementation is a crucial part of the decision-making process. Including employees who are directly involved in the implementation of a decision, or who are indirectly affected by that decision, will help foster their commitment. Without their commitment, gaining support and achieving outcomes becomes increasingly difficult. With this commitment, the supervisor has a reasonable degree of assurance that the decision will be accepted and have the necessary support. In order to implement the decision, the supervisor must have a plan for communicating it to those directly and indirectly affected. Employees must understand how the decision will affect them. Communication is most effective when it precedes action and events. In this way, events conform to plans and events happen when, and in the way, they should happen. Thus, the supervisor should answer the vital questions before they are asked. Communicating answers to these questions can overcome much of the resistance that otherwise might be encountered. Step 6: Evaluate the decision. The supervisor must follow up and appraise the outcomes from the decision to determine if desired results were achieved. If not, then the process needs to be reviewed from the beginning to determine where errors may have been made. Evaluation can take many forms, depending on the type of decision, the environment, working conditions, needs of managers and employees, and technical problems. Generally, feedback and reports are necessary to learn of the decision's outcome. Sometimes, corrections can be introduced for different steps. Other times, the entire decision-making process needs to start over. The main function of the follow up is to determine whether or not the problem has been resolved. Usually follow up requires a supervisory visit to the work area affected by the decision. The supervisor may have to repeat the entire decision process if a new problem has been generated by the solution. It is better to discover this failure during the follow up period rather than remain unaware of a new problem provoked by the implemented solution. Goals Discussion Review
Today's Manager
Managerial Functions
Management Levels
Managerial Roles
Management Skills
Management History
Business Environment
Supervision: Planning
Planning Process
Operating Guidelines
Objective Setting
Action Plans
Problem Solving
Supervision: Organizing
Organizing Process
Power and Authority
Delegating
Communicating
Managing Time
Supervision: Directing
Teambuilding
Consensus-Building
Selecting
Training
Leading
Motivating
Supervision: Controlling
Controlling Process
Coaching
Counseling
Disciplining
Evaluating
Terminating